Tyndale Open Bible Dictionary

PHILOSOPHY

Logically disciplined, self-critical inquiry into the basic questions of life. “Philosophy” itself means “love of wisdom.” This “love” treasures pursuing, discovering, analyzing, and justifying wisdom. Although the word “philosophy” appears only once in the Bible, both Judaism and Christianity were considered philosophies in the Hellenistic world. In fact, from their very earliest encounters with Jewish scholars in Alexandria in the third century BC, Greek philosophers referred to the Jews as a philosophical race. Biblical religion is philosophical because, unlike Greek religion, it makes holistic claims about the nature of reality and it sets out concrete values that can guide community life and individual decisions.

In the only explicit use of the word “philosophy” in the Bible (Col 2:8-10), a point of contrast is made between pagan and Christian philosophy. Paul wanted the Colossians to develop philosophy according to Christ, not according to empty deceit, human tradition, or “the elemental spirits of the universe.” In contrast to empty philosophy based on pagan deceit and human tradition, Christ is himself the fullness of deity dwelling bodily—a sound foundation for wisdom and philosophy. In contrast to the mere “elemental spirits,” Christ himself is the “head of all rule and authority,” the greatest source of truth and justice. The discipline of philosophy is not condemned, for the alternative to deceit and human tradition is “philosophy . . . according to Christ.”

As a discipline, philosophy developed in Greece only after the OT was complete, so it could not have been mentioned in the OT. Nevertheless, the biblical Wisdom Literature serves a function quite similar to some philosophical writings. It provides either proverbial instruction for wholesome living (especially Proverbs) or inquiry into the puzzles of human existence (especially Job and Ecclesiastes).

Some characteristics of biblical revelation are shared with the pagan philosophy of its time. For example, the idea of “conversion” was an assumed pattern in the Hellenistic world of the NT, because to change one’s philosophy meant to adopt a new form of life. Moreover, the literary form of an epistle was developed by philosophers prior to the NT. Plato and Isocrates started the practice of using letters to defend doctrines or ways of life.

Also, a concern for practical life was central to philosophy at the time of the NT; to learn a philosophy came to mean to acquire the art of living well. Furthermore, to be a philosopher meant to be someone who is interested in the question of God, however one understood that question. The NT world was ripe for guidance in right living and in knowing God.

Two specific philosophies are mentioned in the NT: Epicureanism and Stoicism (Acts 17:18). Epicureans followed the teachings of Epicurus (342?–270 BC), an Athenian philosopher who had taught practical ways of achieving a pleasant life through moderate behavior and stable human relationships. He believed that human beings are merely material objects produced by chance combinations of atoms—small, indestructible material pieces.

Stoics also emphasized moderate living, but they believed that there is an ultimate purpose in the world. This purposefulness is established by an all-pervading substance called Logos, or reason. However, like Epicureans, Stoics were materialists, believing all things to be made of matter, including humans, the divine, and the Logos (which they sometimes treated as God).

In Athens, Paul may have also encountered the “academic skeptics.” These philosophers emphasized the fallibility and finitude of human understanding to the point of withholding judgment whenever possible. However, they knew they had to make daily personal decisions, and they remained very curious about other people’s ideas. In fact, all the Athenians and the foreigners who lived there at the time of Paul’s visit seemed to sustain a high level of curiosity about new ideas (Acts 17:21), providing a mentally lively atmosphere.

It was only appropriate for Paul to present the gospel to these curious minds, and he was convincing enough to win some converts. He established a common ground by agreeing with ideas from two Greek philosophers: Epimenides (sixth century BC), “In him we live and move and have our being”; and Cleanthes the Stoic (third century BC), “We are his offspring.” Nevertheless, Paul inevitably offended most of his philosophic listeners by defending the uniqueness of a particular man, Jesus Christ, and by claiming that he had been resurrected from the dead—a claim that contradicted these philosophers’ materialist resignation to the finality of death. Clearly, Christianity entailed a dramatically different “philosophy.”