Tyndale Open Bible Dictionary

TALMUD*

Word meaning “to study,” “to learn.” It is a body of literature in Hebrew and Aramaic, covering interpretations of legal portions of the OT, as well as wise sayings from many rabbinical sources; it spans a time period from shortly after Ezra, about 400 BC, until approximately the AD 500s.

Origin and Development of the Oral Law

Traditional Jews believe that a second law was given to Moses in addition to the first or written word; this second one was given orally, and handed down from generation to generation in oral form. The Talmud itself makes this claim for an early origin, and Pirke Aboth 1:1 states that it is attributed to Moses. Other scholars do not agree on this origin of the oral law and insist that it had its beginning and development after Ezra. For example, there is no mention by the preexilic prophets concerning a lapse from the oral law, but the messages of the prophets abound in warnings about abandoning the written revelation given to Moses, thereby indicating the absence of a body of oral tradition prior to the Babylonian exile.

In the period succeeding Ezra (“a scribe skilled in the law of Moses,” Ezr 7:6), teacher succeeded teacher in synagogues and schools, and their understanding of the OT was treasured and memorized. Across the centuries, many memorizing devices were employed to learn and remember the growing mass of opinions and interpretation. But eventually not even the best memory could retain all the available materials. It was finally necessary to compile a summary of all the essential teachings of preceding generations, and also to facilitate access for future generations to the immense treasure of thought, religious feeling, and wisdom for guidance and inspiration. The compilation is known as the Talmud, the basic repository of the oral law. Jewish people regard it as second to the Scriptures. A literature recognized as the genius of a national and religious creation, it has a profound influence upon the development of the Jewish world view.

Rationale for an Oral Law

With the cessation of the postexilic prophets, and with the continual development of the complexity of life in Israel and its relationships to the outer world, there arose a need for further elaboration of the laws of the Pentateuch. The oral law, at first, was intended to be helpful so that people could obey the written Word of God.

The oral law contained in the Talmud has a twofold function. First, it provided an interpretation of the written Law. According to the rabbis, this is necessary since the oral law makes it possible to observe the written Law. Without the former, it would be impossible to observe the latter. A good example is the concept of not working, as indicated by the biblical Sabbath law. Everyone knew that work was not done on the Sabbath. The rabbis contend, however, that it took the oral law to define what was meant by work.

The second aspect of the oral law is that it modifies and seeks to adapt the written Law to fit new conditions and circumstances. The oral law is supposed to make the written Law a viable document from generation to generation. Without this oral law, the written Law would become obsolete. Therefore, the oral law is necessary for observance of prohibitions as well as for stressing what is good Jewish devotion and loyalty.

It is true that every generation must face new social, political, and economic conditions, which make necessary a different application of the Word of God. But the Word of God cannot be changed in order to accommodate personal desires or interpret new problems in different ages. Something of this is apparent in the first century AD, when Jesus challenged the Jewish leaders for having preempted the Word of God by their oral traditions (Mk 7:9-13).

Basic Antecedents to the Talmud

One of the earliest means for teaching oral law was a running commentary, or Midrash (“to expound”), of the biblical text. If the teaching handled the legal portions of the OT, then it was referred to as Midrash Halakah (the latter emphasized a way by which one walks or lives). When treating nonlegal, ethical, or devotional portions of the OT, then the opinions and understanding was called Midrash Haggadah (“narration”). Ezra and his trained associates were using the method of Midrash, upon the occasion of the completion of the Jerusalem wall in 444 BC, when they “explained the law to the people while the people remained in their place. They read from the book, from the law of God, translating to give the sense so that they understood the reading” (Neh 8:7-8, nasb). This kind of oral Midrash is the method followed by generations of teachers after Ezra, when the religious leaders were known as Soferim (“bookmen” or “scribes”), until about 200 BC. Sometimes referred to as the “Great Synagogue,” these scholars provided teaching to “hedge” the revealed moral and ceremonial word so that Israel would never stray into idolatry or ignorance again. The Soferim were succeeded by the Hasidim (“pious ones”), who tried to maintain a high level of religious devotion. In turn, the Hasidim were succeeded by the Pharisees (“separated ones”) at about 128 BC. Each of these groups contributed to the Midrash method. This material continued to increase and was transmitted orally. Succeeding generations learned these materials through continuous repetition. Therefore, the new method was called Mishnah (“repetition”), and the teachers of the Mishnah were known as Tannaim (“those who handed down orally”). Both Midrash and Mishnah existed side by side in ensuing generations. There came a time, however, when it was necessary to codify the oral law covered by Mishnah, since this became cumbersome to learn as a body of material. Eventually, this material was put into writing; it came to be known as Gemara (“completion”). The combination of Gemara and Mishnah constitute the Talmud.