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Tyndale Open Bible Dictionary

DARIUS

Name of three emperors in the Persian dynasty of the legendary King Achaemenes. A Darius appears in the biblical books of Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah as a Persian king, and in the book of Daniel as a Mede who became king over the Chaldeans (Dn 9:1).

Darius I (521–486 BC)

Also known as Darius Hystaspes and Darius the Great, Darius I seized the throne of the Persian Empire after the death of Cambyses II. Although he was an Achaemenid, he was from a different branch of the royal family than Cyrus and Cambyses, and his authority was not accepted in all the provinces. After Darius quelled several revolts, however, his power was firmly established, and he turned his attention to expanding the empire. His military campaigns extended Persian borders to the Danube River in the west and to the Indus River in the east, making him ruler of the largest empire the world had known. Greco-Persian conflict, which continued until Alexander the Great conquered the empire in 330 BC, began when Darius launched two invasions of Greece after conquering Thrace and Macedonia. The first expedition was destroyed by a storm in the Aegean Sea; the second was defeated by the Athenians in the famous battle of Marathon in 490 BC.

An able administrator, Darius did much to promote trade and commerce. He instituted a uniform system of weights and measures. During his reign, a canal from the Nile River to the Red Sea was completed, and a sea route from the Indus River to Egypt was explored.

During Darius’s reign, Persian architecture developed a style that continued until the end of the Achaemenid dynasty. Darius built at Babylon, Ecbatana, and Susa, his capital. A great royal road was constructed from Susa to the Lydian capital of Sardis. His greatest architectural accomplishment was the founding of Persepolis, a new royal city to replace the emperor’s residence at Pasargadae. Darius also allowed temples to be built in Egypt and in Jerusalem, continuing Cyrus’s policy of respecting the religious customs of his subjects.

Darius I is the Darius, king of Persia, mentioned in the books of Ezra, Haggai, and Zechariah. Ezra 5–6 record that Zerubbabel and Jeshua, with the help of Haggai and Zechariah, finished rebuilding the temple during Darius’s reign while Tattenai was governor of the province “Beyond the River” (Syria-Palestine). Zerubbabel and Jeshua had returned to Jerusalem under Cyrus II about 538 BC (Ezr 2:2). They completed the temple in the sixth year of Darius (6:15). That must have been the sixth year of Darius I (516 BC), since the sixth year of Darius II would certainly be too late. That identification was confirmed by discovery of a Babylonian document, dated June 5, 502 BC, which refers to Tattenai as “the governor of Beyond the River.”

In chapter 4 of Ezra three Persian rulers are mentioned: Darius (vv 5, 24); Ahasuerus (probably Xerxes I, v 6); and Artaxerxes (probably Artaxerxes I, vv 7-23). The chapter is a brief record of resistance to Jewish efforts to rebuild the city of Jerusalem and the temple. Verse 24 states that work on the temple stopped until “the second year of the reign of Darius,” yet the temple was completed in the sixth year of Darius I. Obviously, work on the temple could not have stopped in the second year of Artaxerxes’ son Darius II (421 BC) if it had already been finished in 515 BC. Therefore, Ezra 4:24 should be understood not as a chronological continuation of the first 23 verses but as an introduction to the next two chapters, which discuss the building of the temple.

Darius II (423–404 BC)

Also known as Ochus (his real name) and Darius Nothus (“Darius the bastard”), Darius II was the son of Artaxerxes I by a Babylonian concubine. Before he became emperor, Ochus was a satrap (governor) of Hyrcania, a region on the southeast coast of the Caspian Sea. In 423 BC his half brother, Sogdianus (or Secydianus), killed Xerxes II. Ochus then seized the throne from Sogdianus, whom he executed, and adopted the name Darius II. His reign was plagued with revolution and corruption. His own full brother, Arsites, revolted soon after Darius seized the throne, and Darius had him executed.

After an alliance with Sparta was formed against Athens, Persia joined the Peloponnesian War. Several successful military campaigns succeeded in recovering the Greek coastal cities of Asia Minor and breaking Athenian power in the Aegean area. Darius II died in Babylon in 404 BC, the year the Peloponnesian War ended.

The Darius mentioned only once in the book of Nehemiah probably is Darius II. The passage states that Jewish priests were recorded “until the reign of Darius the Persian” (Neh 12:22b); descendants of Levi were recorded “until the days of Johanan son of Eliashib” (Neh 12:23). An Aramaic document found in Elephantine, Egypt, refers to Johanan the high priest in Jerusalem. The document was written in 407 BC, thus placing Johanan in the reign of Darius II.

Darius the Mede

Unknown in historical documents of the period of the Babylonian and Persian empires, this biblical Darius has been identified with several known figures. The most important efforts have identified Darius the Mede as another name for Cyrus II (“Cyrus the Persian,” Dn 6:28); for Cambyses II, Cyrus’s son; or for Gubaru, who was governor of Babylon and the province Beyond the River during the reigns of Cyrus II and Cambyses II.

According to the book of Daniel, “Darius the Mede received the kingdom” when Belshazzar, king of Babylon, was slain (Dn 5:30-31). Darius was about 62 years old (v 31) and was “the son of Ahasuerus, by birth a Mede” (9:1). Daniel never suggested that Darius was king of Media or of the whole Persian Empire, only of the Chaldean (Babylonian) kingdom. The Babylonian Empire included Mesopotamia (Babylonia and Assyria) and Syro-Palestine (Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine). In the Persian Empire, that huge area became known as the province of Babylon (Mesopotamia) and Beyond the River (Syro-Palestine). Daniel also recorded that Darius appointed governors in the kingdom. By the third year of Cyrus the Persian (536 BC), the first year of Darius the Mede had already passed (Dn 10:1–11:1).

According to Nabonidus’s Chronicle and the Persian Verse Account of Nabonidus (two cuneiform documents from Nabonidus’s reign), Nabonidus was in Tema until Cyrus’s invasion of Babylonia. While he was away, he “entrusted the kingship” to his son Belshazzar. On October 12, 539 BC, Babylon fell to Ugbaru, general of Cyrus’s army. Cyrus entered Babylon on October 29, 539 BC, and appointed a person named Gubaru governor of Babylon. Gubaru then appointed other governors under him. General Ugbaru died on November 6, 539 BC.

Clearly there is no place for Darius the Mede between the reigns of Nabonidus/Belshazzar and Cyrus II. Thus Darius the Mede must be Cyrus, a subordinate of Cyrus, or Cambyses, crown prince under Cyrus. But Cyrus II is mentioned as a separate person (Dn 6:28; 10:1–11:1), and it seems unlikely that the author would name the same figure both “Cyrus the Persian” and “Darius the Mede.” Cambyses II could not have been 62 years old; also, since he was not made king of Babylon until he became king of the empire in 529 BC, Cambyses’ first year could not precede Cyrus’s third year (536 BC).

Darius the Mede was thus probably a subordinate of Cyrus who was made ruler of “the realm of the Chaldeans” after Belshazzar and who could have been considered a king by his subjects. Accordingly, the reign of Darius (Dn 6:28) should be understood as simultaneous with that of Cyrus, not as a preceding reign. Thus, Gubaru was made governor of Babylon immediately following the reign of Belshazzar, and he appointed governors, as did Darius the Mede. There is no record of Gubaru’s age, nationality, or ancestry. He may well have been a 62-year-old Mede whose father was named Ahasuerus. The Ahasuerus of the book of Esther and of Ezra 4:6 should be identified with a later king, probably Xerxes I.

Many Babylonian texts record that Gubaru was governor of Babylon and the province Beyond the River for about 14 years (539–525 BC). The documents attribute much power to him. His name is a final warning to officials who might disobey the laws. In documents that mention Cyrus II or Cambyses II, crimes in Babylon are stated to be sins against Gubaru, not against Cyrus or Cambyses. The province of Babylon and Beyond the River was the richest and most populous in the Persian Empire, encompassing many nations and languages. For a powerful governor of such a region to be called “king” by his subjects seems only natural.

The case for Gubaru is admittedly circumstantial, but it remains the best solution to the problem. Until further evidence comes to light, it is safe to assume that Darius the Mede, “king over the realm of the Chaldeans,” was actually Gubaru, the known governor of that realm.