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Tyndale Open Bible Dictionary

ARAMAIC

One of the three original languages of the Bible, found in sections of the book of Daniel (2:4b–7:28) and Ezra (4:8–6:18; 7:12-26). Aramaic phrases and expressions also appear in Genesis (31:47), Jeremiah (10:11), and the NT.

Old Testament Use

Aramaic is linguistically very close to Hebrew and similar in structure. Aramaic texts in the Bible are written in the same script as Hebrew. In contrast to Hebrew, Aramaic uses a larger vocabulary, including many loan words, and a greater variety of connectives. It also contains an elaborate system of tenses, developed through the use of participles with pronouns or with various forms of the verb “to be.” Although Aramaic is less euphonious and poetical than Hebrew, it is probably superior as a vehicle of exact expression.

Aramaic has perhaps the longest continuous living history of any language known. It was used during the Bible’s patriarchal period and is still spoken by a few people today. Aramaic and its cognate, Syriac, evolved into many dialects in different places and periods. Characterized by simplicity, clarity, and precision, it adapted easily to the various needs of everyday life. It could serve equally well as a language for scholars, pupils, lawyers, or merchants. Some have described it as the Semitic equivalent of English.

The origin of Aramaic is unknown, but it seems to have been closely related to Amorite and possibly to other ancient northwest Semitic dialects barely known to scholars. Although an Aramean kingdom as such never really existed, various Aramean “states” developed into influential centers. A few short Aramean inscriptions from that era (10th to 8th centuries BC) have been found and studied.

By the eighth century BC, King Hezekiah’s representatives requested the spokesmen of the Assyrian king Sennacherib to “speak to your servants in Aramaic, since we understand it. Don’t speak to us in Hebrew in the hearing of the people on the wall” (2 Kgs 18:26, niv). By the Persian period, Aramaic had become the language of international trade. During their captivity, the Jews probably adopted it for convenience—certainly in commerce—while Hebrew became confined to the learned and to religious leaders.

Gradually, especially after the Babylonian exile, Aramaic influence pervaded the land of Palestine. Nehemiah complained that children from mixed marriages were unable to speak Hebrew (Neh 13:24). The Jews seem to have continued using Aramaic widely during the Persian, Greek, and Roman periods. Eventually the Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Aramaic paraphrases, called Targums, some of which have been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.

New Testament Use

In popular thought, Aramaic was the common language of Palestine during the time of Jesus. Yet that is by no means certain and probably is an oversimplification of the linguistic situation of that time. Names used in the NT reflect Aramaic (Bartholomew, Bar-Jonah, Barnabas), Greek (Andrew, Philip), and Latin (Mark), as well as Hebrew. There is no question that Aramaic was widely used, as were Greek and Hebrew. Latin was probably limited to military and governmental circles. Mishnaic Hebrew, a common kind of everyday Hebrew dialect, was also used in Jesus’ day; Mishnaic Hebrew documents have been discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.

What was the “Hebrew” referred to in certain NT passages (Jn 5:2; 19:13, 17, 20; 20:16; Rv 9:11; 16:16)? The languages used for the inscription put on Jesus’ cross were “Hebrew, Latin, and Greek” (Jn 19:19-20). Later, the apostle Paul was said to speak “Hebrew” (Acts 22:2; 26:14). The exact dialect he spoke may be debated, but as a Pharisee he was undoubtedly able to read the Hebrew of the OT. The Greek word for “Hebrew” is sometimes translated “Aramaic” and may be a general term for Semitic, or for a blend of Hebrew-Aramaic (as Yiddish is German-Hebrew). At any rate, Aramaic served as a transition from Hebrew to Greek as the language spoken by Jews in Jesus’ day. In that sense Aramaic connects OT Hebrew with NT Greek.